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    First evidence of crucible steel production in Medieval Anatolia, Kubadabad: A trace for possible technology exchange between Anatolia and Southern Asia
    (Elsevier Inc., 2022) Güder, Ümit; Çeken, Muharrem; Yavaş, Alptekin; Yalçın, Ünsal; Raabe, Dierk
    In this article, we present the first archaeological evidence for crucible steel production in Anatolia uncovered in recent excavations at Kubadabad, which was built as a palace by the Anatolian Seljuks in the early 13th century AD. Along with plenty of crucible sherds recovered at the site, blades made of crucible steel, production waste-iron chunks and manganese oxide pellets also revealed remarkable information about the process of production. Based on the results of the archaeometry analysis of crucibles of a unique shape with a pointed base, it was discovered that the fabric of the crucible was tempered with finely crushed charcoal, straw and quartz-containing sand. In addition, metallography and SEM analysis conducted on the metal finds demonstrated that high-quality tools were produced from manganese alloy crucible steel ingots at the site. This study evaluates most of the finds found at Kubadabad from the end of the 13th century AD, when some of the buildings were converted into workshops for decorated ceramic tiles and metal production under Ilkhanid patronage or Turkish beyliks. Using analytical results and archaeological findings, we discuss the historical connections of crucible steel production in Kubadabad, which differs from the Central Asian and Persian traditions, but shares similarities with the Southern Asian tradition.
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    From Crucible Steel to the Battlefield: Investigating a Unique Early Medieval Arrowhead from Anatolia
    (Springernature, 2025) Guder, Umit; Yavas, Alptekin; Gokalp, Zeliha Demirel; Tasan, Cemal Cem; Raabe, Dierk
    An arrowhead that was recovered during the excavations of the lower city church of Byzantine Stronghold Amorium in central Anatolia has been subjected to archaeometric analysis. Coins discovered in the same context date the arrowhead to the Middle Byzantine period (ninth-tenth century CE). It is a three-bladed arrowhead with a needle-type tang. Metallography (OM, SEM), SEM-EDS and EBSD techniques were used to examine samples taken from the head and the tang sections of the arrowhead. The arrowhead was determined to be made of manganese-alloyed crucible steel (0.4-1% Mn), shaped through warm forging cycles and selectively quenched and tempered to enhance its mechanical properties. The hardened head, likely designed for armor penetration, along with the potential watered surface pattern (firind), suggests that the arrowhead functioned both as a weapon and a symbol of prestige. Historical sources and archaeometallurgical evidence link the arrowhead to mounted Turkic archers in the Abbasid army during the 838 CE Sack of Amorium. This study of the arrowhead revealed it to be the earliest crucible steel find and the only example of such an object manufactured from crucible steel discovered in medieval Anatolian excavations.